Ambiguous Participation: A View on Participatory Design from Political Theory
Keywords:
participation, engagement, participatory turn, participatory democracy, urban planning, Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation, essentially contested concept
Abstract
This article explores approaches to the justification of citizen participation in urbanism. In other words, the main question of the article is why we should use citizen participation in urban projects. In search of normative grounds for participation, the author turns to the genealogy of participatory ideas and practices in urban governance and traces their evolution from their origin in the mid-twentieth century in Western countries to their import to Russia in the 2010s. With the help of political theory, the author identifies two lines of argumentation in favor of citizen engagement, labeled here as democratic and technocratic. The author’s main thesis is that these two ways of justifying public participation, being essentially contradictory, are often conflated in an ambiguous notion of participation in urbanism, which creates confusion in contemporary participatory theories and difficulties in practice, including questions about the evaluation of its results and effectiveness. The author offers conclusions that should help those working with participatory projects and citizens to deal with the ambiguity of participation.
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References
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Кац Э., Лазарсфельд П. (2024) Личное влияние. Роль людей в потоке массовой информации. М.: Издательство редких книг.
Крауч К. (2010) Постдемократия. М.: Издательский дом ВШЭ.
Санофф Г. (2015) Соучаствующее проектирование. Практики общественного участия в формировании среды больших и малых городов. Вологда: Проектная группа.
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Berelson R., Lazarsfeld P., McPhee W. (1954) Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
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Baiocchi G., Ganuza E. (2017) Popular Democracy: The Paradox of Participation. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Damer S., Hague C. (1971) Public Participation in Planning: A Review // The Town Planning Review. Vol. 42. № 3. P. 217–232.
Davidoff P. (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning // Journal of the American Institute of planners. Vol. 31. № 4. P. 331–338.
Day D. (1997) Citizen Participation in the Planning Process: An Essentially Contested Concept? // Journal of Planning Literature. Vol. 11. № 3. P. 421–434.
Dore M. (2023) Governing Through Design: The Politics of Participation in Neoliberal Cities // CoDesign. Vol. 19. № 3. P. 253–268.
Etzioni-Halevy E. (1983) Bureaucracy and Democracy: A Political Dilemma. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Fagence M. (1977) Citizen Participation in Planning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Fung A. (2009) Empowered Participation: Reinventing Urban Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gans H. (1969) Planning for People, Not Buildings // Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. Vol. 1. № 1. P. 33–46.
Ganuza E., Baiocchi G., Summers N. (2016) Conflicts and Paradoxes in the Rhetoric of Participation // Journal of Civil Society. Vol. 12. № 3. P. 328–343.
Gara M. (2020) What Kind of Institutional Implementation for Participatory Democracy? Theories and Debate During the Long 1970s in the United States // USAbroad — Journal of American History and Politics. Vol. 3. № 1S. P. 69–79.
Glass J. (1979) Citizen Participation in Planning: The Relationship Between Objectives and Techniques // Journal of the American Planning Association. Vol. 45. № 2. P. 180–189.
Goodman R. (1971) After the Planners. N.Y.: Simon & Schuster.
Hickey S. (2004) Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation. L.: Zed Books.
Hilmer J. (2010) The State of Participatory Democratic Theory // New Political Science. Vol. 32. № 1. P. 43–63.
Howard C., Lipsky M., Marshall D. (1994) Citizen Participation in Urban Politics: Rise and Routinization // Big-city Politics, Governance, and Fiscal Constraints / G. Peterson (ed.). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. P. 153–199.
Hulchanski J. (1977) Citizen Participation in Urban and Regional Planning: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Toronto: Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Toronto.
Huxley M. (2013) Historicizing Planning, Problematizing Participation // International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. Vol. 37. № 5. P. 1527–1541.
Innes J., Booher D. (2004) Reframing Public Participation: Strategies for the 21st Century // Planning theory & practice. Vol. 5. № 4. P. 419–436.
Jones B. (1990) Neighborhood Planning: A Guide for Citizens and Planners. Chicago: American Planning Association Planner’s Press.
Katz E., Lazarsfeld P. (1955) Personal Influence. New York: Free Press.
Kaufman A. (1960) Human Nature and Participatory Democracy / Friedrich C. (ed.) Responsibility. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. P. 266–289.
Kiernan M. (1983) Ideology, Politics, and planning: Reflections on the Theory and Practice of Urban Planning // Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. Vol. 10. № 1. P. 71–87.
Krumholtz N. (1986) City pPlanning for Greater Equity // Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. Vol. 3. № 4. P. 327–337.
Kornhauser W. (1959) The Politics of Mass Society. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
Kühn M. (2021) Agonistic Planning Theory Revisited: The Planner’s Role in Dealing With Conflict // Planning Theory. Vol. 20. № 2. P. 143–156.
Lane M. (2005) Public Participation in Planning: An Intellectual History // Australian Geographer. Vol. 36. № 3. P. 283–299.
Langton S. (1979) American Citizen Participation: A Deep-rooted Tradition // National Civic Review. Vol. 68. № 8. P. 403–422.
Lee C., Michael M., Walker E. (2015) Democratizing Inequalities: Dilemmas of the New Public Participation. N.Y.: NYU Press.
MacNair R., Caldwell R., Pollane L. (1983) Citizen Participants in Public Bureaucracies: Foul-Weather Friends // Administration & Society. Vol. 14. № 4. P. 507–524.
Macpherson C. (1977) The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mansbridge J. (1995) Does Participation Make Better Citizens? // The Good Society. Vol. 5. № 2. P. 1–7.
Mulder M. (1971) Power Equalization Through Participation? // Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 16. № 1. P. 31–38.
A Standard City Planning Enabling Act by the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning Appointed by Secretary Hoover (1928) // GovInfo. Режим доступа: https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GOVPUB-C13-955faaa3558a7c44c6a9edbbc01f5cd5 (дата обращения: 22.09.2023).
Neuse S. (1983) From Grass Roots to Citizen Participation // Public Administration Quarterly. Vol. 7. № 3. P. 294–309.
Pateman C. (1970) Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pateman C. (2012) Participatory Democracy Revisited // Perspectives on politics. Vol. 10. № 1. P. 7–19.
Polletta F. (2014) Is Participation Without Power Good Enough? // The Sociological Quarterly. Vol. 55. № 3. P. 453–466.
Polletta F. (2016) Participatory Enthusiasms: A Recent History of Citizen Engagement Initiatives // Journal of Civil Society. Vol. 12. № 3. P. 231–246.
Potter G. (2013) Public Participation in Planning as Urban Citizenship: Contrasting Two Conceptualizations of Citizenship in Toronto’s Ward 20 // Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University. Режим доступа: http://hdl.handle.net/10315/27733 (дата обращения: 22.09.2023).
Rein M. (1969) Social Planning: The Search for Legitimacy // Journal of the American Institute of Planners. Vol. 35. № 4. P. 233–244.
Rittel H. W. J., Webber M. (1973) M. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning // Policy Sciences. Vol. 4. № 2. P. 155–169.
Romariz Peixoto L., Rectem L., Pouleur J. (2022) A. Citizen Participation in Architecture and Urban Planning Confronted with Arnstein's Ladder // Architecture. Vol. 2. № 1. P. 114–134.
Rosener J. (1982) Making Bureaucrats Responsive: A Study of the Impact of Citizen Participation and Staff Recommendations on Regulatory Decision Making // Public Administration Review. Vol. 42. № 4. P. 339–345.
Ross M. (1958) Case Histories in Community Organization. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Rubin L. (1969) Maximum Feasible Participation: The Origins, Implications, and Present Status // The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. 385. № 1. P. 14–29.
Shapely P. (2011) Planning, Housing and Participation in Britain, 1968–1976 // Planning Perspectives. Vol. 26. № 1. P. 75–90.
Spiegel H. (1968) Citizen Participation in Urban Development. Center for Community Affairs, NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science.
Strange J. (1972) The Impact of Citizen Participation on Public Administration // Public Administration Review. Vol. 32. P. 457–470.
Strokosch K., Osborne S. (2020) Debate: If Citizen Participation Is So Important, Why Has It Not Been Achieved? // Public Money & Management. Vol. 40. № 1. P. 8–10.
Swyngedouw E. (2005) Governance Innovation and the Citizen: The Janus Face of Governance-beyond-the-state // Urban Studies. Vol. 42. № 11. P. 1991–2006.
The View from City Hall (1972) // Public Administration Review. Special Issue: Citizens Action in Model Cities and CAP Programs. P. 390–402.
Thorpe A. (2017) Rethinking Participation, Rethinking Planning // Planning Theory & Practice. Vol. 18. № 4. P. 566–582.
White S. (1996) Depoliticising Development: The Uses and Abuses of Participation // Development in Practice. Vol. 6. № 1. P. 6–15.
Zimmerman J. (1972) The Federated City: Community Control in Large Cities. N.Y.: St. Martin’s Press.
Верещагина Е. (2021) Соучаствующее проектирование: особенности подхода в России // Городские исследования и практики. Т. 6. № 2. С. 7–25.
Вовлечение горожан в развитие городской среды: итоги, технологии, перспективы: учебное пособие (2023) / Зеленцова Е. В., Рудой Р. О., Соснин Д. П. и др. Москва: Проектная группа 8.
Даль Р. (1992) Введение в теорию демократии. М.: Наука, СП КВАДРАТ.
Кац Э., Лазарсфельд П. (2024) Личное влияние. Роль людей в потоке массовой информации. М.: Издательство редких книг.
Крауч К. (2010) Постдемократия. М.: Издательский дом ВШЭ.
Санофф Г. (2015) Соучаствующее проектирование. Практики общественного участия в формировании среды больших и малых городов. Вологда: Проектная группа.
Рекомендации по организации общественного участия в реализации проектов комплексного благоустройства городской среды Минстроя РФ (2017) // Минстрой России. Режим доступа: https://minstroyrf.gov.ru/docs/13338/ (дата обращения: 05.04.2023).
Almond G., Verba S. (1963) The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Arnstein S. (1969) A Ladder of Citizen Participation // Journal of the American Institute of planners. Vol. 35. № 4. P. 216–224.
Arnstein S. (1972) Maximum Feasible Manipulation // Public Administration Review. Special Issue: Citizens Action in Model Cities and CAP Programs. P. 377–390.
Barber B. (1984) Strong Democracy: Participatory Politics for a New Age. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
Berelson R., Lazarsfeld P., McPhee W. (1954) Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Bherer L., Dufour P., Montambeault F. (2018) The Participatory Democracy Turn. N.Y, L.: Routledge.
Baiocchi G., Ganuza E. (2017) Popular Democracy: The Paradox of Participation. Redwood City, CA: Stanford University Press.
Bolan R. (1967) Emerging Views of Planning // Journal of the American Institute of Planners. Vol. 33. № 4. P. 233–245.
Brown W. (2015) Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism's Stealth Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Buchy M., Hoverman S. (2000) Understanding Public Participation in Forest Planning: A Review // Forest policy and Economics. Vol. 1. № 1. P. 15–25.
Burke E. (1968) Citizen Participation Strategies // Journal of the American Institute of Planners. Vol. 34. № 5. P. 287–294.
Cahn E., Cahn J. (1971) Maximum Feasible Participation: A General Overview // Citizen Participation: Effecting Community Change / E. Cahn, A. Passett (eds.). N.Y.: Praeger Publishers.
Cleaver F. (1999) Paradoxes of Participation: Questioning Participatory Approaches to Development // Journal of International Development: The Journal of the Development Studies Association. Vol. 11. № 4. P. 597–612.
Cornwall A. (2008) Unpacking ‘Participation’: Models, Meanings and Practices // Community Development Journal. Vol. 43. № 3. P. 269–283.
Damer S., Hague C. (1971) Public Participation in Planning: A Review // The Town Planning Review. Vol. 42. № 3. P. 217–232.
Davidoff P. (1965) Advocacy and Pluralism in Planning // Journal of the American Institute of planners. Vol. 31. № 4. P. 331–338.
Day D. (1997) Citizen Participation in the Planning Process: An Essentially Contested Concept? // Journal of Planning Literature. Vol. 11. № 3. P. 421–434.
Dore M. (2023) Governing Through Design: The Politics of Participation in Neoliberal Cities // CoDesign. Vol. 19. № 3. P. 253–268.
Etzioni-Halevy E. (1983) Bureaucracy and Democracy: A Political Dilemma. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Fagence M. (1977) Citizen Participation in Planning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Fung A. (2009) Empowered Participation: Reinventing Urban Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Gans H. (1969) Planning for People, Not Buildings // Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space. Vol. 1. № 1. P. 33–46.
Ganuza E., Baiocchi G., Summers N. (2016) Conflicts and Paradoxes in the Rhetoric of Participation // Journal of Civil Society. Vol. 12. № 3. P. 328–343.
Gara M. (2020) What Kind of Institutional Implementation for Participatory Democracy? Theories and Debate During the Long 1970s in the United States // USAbroad — Journal of American History and Politics. Vol. 3. № 1S. P. 69–79.
Glass J. (1979) Citizen Participation in Planning: The Relationship Between Objectives and Techniques // Journal of the American Planning Association. Vol. 45. № 2. P. 180–189.
Goodman R. (1971) After the Planners. N.Y.: Simon & Schuster.
Hickey S. (2004) Participation: From Tyranny to Transformation. L.: Zed Books.
Hilmer J. (2010) The State of Participatory Democratic Theory // New Political Science. Vol. 32. № 1. P. 43–63.
Howard C., Lipsky M., Marshall D. (1994) Citizen Participation in Urban Politics: Rise and Routinization // Big-city Politics, Governance, and Fiscal Constraints / G. Peterson (ed.). Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press. P. 153–199.
Hulchanski J. (1977) Citizen Participation in Urban and Regional Planning: A Comprehensive Bibliography. Toronto: Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Toronto.
Huxley M. (2013) Historicizing Planning, Problematizing Participation // International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. Vol. 37. № 5. P. 1527–1541.
Innes J., Booher D. (2004) Reframing Public Participation: Strategies for the 21st Century // Planning theory & practice. Vol. 5. № 4. P. 419–436.
Jones B. (1990) Neighborhood Planning: A Guide for Citizens and Planners. Chicago: American Planning Association Planner’s Press.
Katz E., Lazarsfeld P. (1955) Personal Influence. New York: Free Press.
Kaufman A. (1960) Human Nature and Participatory Democracy / Friedrich C. (ed.) Responsibility. New York: Liberal Arts Press, 1960. P. 266–289.
Kiernan M. (1983) Ideology, Politics, and planning: Reflections on the Theory and Practice of Urban Planning // Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. Vol. 10. № 1. P. 71–87.
Krumholtz N. (1986) City pPlanning for Greater Equity // Journal of Architectural and Planning Research. Vol. 3. № 4. P. 327–337.
Kornhauser W. (1959) The Politics of Mass Society. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
Kühn M. (2021) Agonistic Planning Theory Revisited: The Planner’s Role in Dealing With Conflict // Planning Theory. Vol. 20. № 2. P. 143–156.
Lane M. (2005) Public Participation in Planning: An Intellectual History // Australian Geographer. Vol. 36. № 3. P. 283–299.
Langton S. (1979) American Citizen Participation: A Deep-rooted Tradition // National Civic Review. Vol. 68. № 8. P. 403–422.
Lee C., Michael M., Walker E. (2015) Democratizing Inequalities: Dilemmas of the New Public Participation. N.Y.: NYU Press.
MacNair R., Caldwell R., Pollane L. (1983) Citizen Participants in Public Bureaucracies: Foul-Weather Friends // Administration & Society. Vol. 14. № 4. P. 507–524.
Macpherson C. (1977) The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mansbridge J. (1995) Does Participation Make Better Citizens? // The Good Society. Vol. 5. № 2. P. 1–7.
Mulder M. (1971) Power Equalization Through Participation? // Administrative Science Quarterly. Vol. 16. № 1. P. 31–38.
A Standard City Planning Enabling Act by the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning Appointed by Secretary Hoover (1928) // GovInfo. Режим доступа: https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/GOVPUB-C13-955faaa3558a7c44c6a9edbbc01f5cd5 (дата обращения: 22.09.2023).
Neuse S. (1983) From Grass Roots to Citizen Participation // Public Administration Quarterly. Vol. 7. № 3. P. 294–309.
Pateman C. (1970) Participation and Democratic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Pateman C. (2012) Participatory Democracy Revisited // Perspectives on politics. Vol. 10. № 1. P. 7–19.
Polletta F. (2014) Is Participation Without Power Good Enough? // The Sociological Quarterly. Vol. 55. № 3. P. 453–466.
Polletta F. (2016) Participatory Enthusiasms: A Recent History of Citizen Engagement Initiatives // Journal of Civil Society. Vol. 12. № 3. P. 231–246.
Potter G. (2013) Public Participation in Planning as Urban Citizenship: Contrasting Two Conceptualizations of Citizenship in Toronto’s Ward 20 // Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University. Режим доступа: http://hdl.handle.net/10315/27733 (дата обращения: 22.09.2023).
Rein M. (1969) Social Planning: The Search for Legitimacy // Journal of the American Institute of Planners. Vol. 35. № 4. P. 233–244.
Rittel H. W. J., Webber M. (1973) M. Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning // Policy Sciences. Vol. 4. № 2. P. 155–169.
Romariz Peixoto L., Rectem L., Pouleur J. (2022) A. Citizen Participation in Architecture and Urban Planning Confronted with Arnstein's Ladder // Architecture. Vol. 2. № 1. P. 114–134.
Rosener J. (1982) Making Bureaucrats Responsive: A Study of the Impact of Citizen Participation and Staff Recommendations on Regulatory Decision Making // Public Administration Review. Vol. 42. № 4. P. 339–345.
Ross M. (1958) Case Histories in Community Organization. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Rubin L. (1969) Maximum Feasible Participation: The Origins, Implications, and Present Status // The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Vol. 385. № 1. P. 14–29.
Shapely P. (2011) Planning, Housing and Participation in Britain, 1968–1976 // Planning Perspectives. Vol. 26. № 1. P. 75–90.
Spiegel H. (1968) Citizen Participation in Urban Development. Center for Community Affairs, NTL Institute for Applied Behavioral Science.
Strange J. (1972) The Impact of Citizen Participation on Public Administration // Public Administration Review. Vol. 32. P. 457–470.
Strokosch K., Osborne S. (2020) Debate: If Citizen Participation Is So Important, Why Has It Not Been Achieved? // Public Money & Management. Vol. 40. № 1. P. 8–10.
Swyngedouw E. (2005) Governance Innovation and the Citizen: The Janus Face of Governance-beyond-the-state // Urban Studies. Vol. 42. № 11. P. 1991–2006.
The View from City Hall (1972) // Public Administration Review. Special Issue: Citizens Action in Model Cities and CAP Programs. P. 390–402.
Thorpe A. (2017) Rethinking Participation, Rethinking Planning // Planning Theory & Practice. Vol. 18. № 4. P. 566–582.
White S. (1996) Depoliticising Development: The Uses and Abuses of Participation // Development in Practice. Vol. 6. № 1. P. 6–15.
Zimmerman J. (1972) The Federated City: Community Control in Large Cities. N.Y.: St. Martin’s Press.
Published
2025-03-31
How to Cite
ZamyatinA. (2025). Ambiguous Participation: A View on Participatory Design from Political Theory. Urban Studies and Practices, 10(1), 6-20. https://doi.org/10.17323/usp10120256-20
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